A History of the Columbia Comedy Short
Columbia Studios. Note the "Hollywoodland" sign in the distance.
At one time in movie history, the comedy short (a two-reel "short" ran approx. 16-20 minutes) was often the highlight of the movie going experience. They were extremely popular with audiences, and Columbia made some of the finest comedy shorts in the industry. By carrying on the Mack Sennett tradition of good old-fashioned slapstick, Columbia prevailed in the short subjects field for over 20 years.
The history of Columbia Pictures can be traced back to 1918, when Harry Cohn, along with brother Jack and partner Joe Brandt, formed CBC Film Sales. CBC produced low budget shorts, including THE HALL ROOM BOYS series, and would go on to produce their first feature film MORE TO BE PITIED THAN SCORNED. With the profit made from the feature (it was produced for $22,000.00 and earned $130,000.00), Cohn, formed Columbia Pictures.
The studio was located in the heart of Hollywood at Sunset and Gower. In addition to producing feature films, Columbia also handled the distribution of short subjects produced by independent studios. By the early 1930's, these independents included a series of two-reel comedies billed as SUNRISE COMEDIES produced by The Lambs Club (a group of professional actors including Leon Errol and Will Mahoney), a handful of MICKEY McGUIRE comedies starring Mickey Rooney (produced by Larry Darmour) and the Charles Mintz KRAZY KAT and SCRAPPY and Walt Disney's MICKEY MOUSE and SILLY SYMPHONIES cartoons.
In 1933, Cohn decided to develop a short subjects division exclusively for Columbia. To get the ball rolling, Cohn hired Jules White to help shape and head the department. No stranger to comedy, White had previously directed Buster Keaton in SIDEWALKS OF NEW YORK and the Thelma Todd-Zasu Pitts two-reeler SHOW BUSINESS for Hal Roach, and before that, he worked under older brother Jack White at Educational turning out fast paced and zany one and two-reel subjects. Jules was also responsible for the MGM series of bizarre DOGVILLE COMEDIES. These spoofs of then-current feature films with an all canine cast was co-created by Jules long-time friend, Zion Myers (brother of silent screen star Carmel Myers).
After a month with little progress, a frustrated White left Columbia. Zion Myers accepted Harry Cohn's offer to head the shorts department. Myers first act as producer was to hire Archie Gottler, a Broadway composer who would develop Columbia's first official series, THE MUSICAL NOVELTIES. At Myers request, Jules returned to the unit. White then immediately went to work by hiring a top-notch crew of comedy writers and directors, most having previously worked for Mack Sennett and other studios. Among those Jules hired included Del Lord, Clyde Bruckman, Elwood Ullman, Felix Adler, Charles Lamont, Harry Edwards, James W. Horne, and James Parrott. White brought in his brothers Sam and Jack (who is often credited as "Preston Black") to also write and direct two-reelers for the unit. It was at this time, on August 8, 1934, that Columbia moved it's comedy department from Gower Street to the old, rickety California Studio on Beechwood Drive.
The history of Columbia Pictures can be traced back to 1918, when Harry Cohn, along with brother Jack and partner Joe Brandt, formed CBC Film Sales. CBC produced low budget shorts, including THE HALL ROOM BOYS series, and would go on to produce their first feature film MORE TO BE PITIED THAN SCORNED. With the profit made from the feature (it was produced for $22,000.00 and earned $130,000.00), Cohn, formed Columbia Pictures.
The studio was located in the heart of Hollywood at Sunset and Gower. In addition to producing feature films, Columbia also handled the distribution of short subjects produced by independent studios. By the early 1930's, these independents included a series of two-reel comedies billed as SUNRISE COMEDIES produced by The Lambs Club (a group of professional actors including Leon Errol and Will Mahoney), a handful of MICKEY McGUIRE comedies starring Mickey Rooney (produced by Larry Darmour) and the Charles Mintz KRAZY KAT and SCRAPPY and Walt Disney's MICKEY MOUSE and SILLY SYMPHONIES cartoons.
In 1933, Cohn decided to develop a short subjects division exclusively for Columbia. To get the ball rolling, Cohn hired Jules White to help shape and head the department. No stranger to comedy, White had previously directed Buster Keaton in SIDEWALKS OF NEW YORK and the Thelma Todd-Zasu Pitts two-reeler SHOW BUSINESS for Hal Roach, and before that, he worked under older brother Jack White at Educational turning out fast paced and zany one and two-reel subjects. Jules was also responsible for the MGM series of bizarre DOGVILLE COMEDIES. These spoofs of then-current feature films with an all canine cast was co-created by Jules long-time friend, Zion Myers (brother of silent screen star Carmel Myers).
After a month with little progress, a frustrated White left Columbia. Zion Myers accepted Harry Cohn's offer to head the shorts department. Myers first act as producer was to hire Archie Gottler, a Broadway composer who would develop Columbia's first official series, THE MUSICAL NOVELTIES. At Myers request, Jules returned to the unit. White then immediately went to work by hiring a top-notch crew of comedy writers and directors, most having previously worked for Mack Sennett and other studios. Among those Jules hired included Del Lord, Clyde Bruckman, Elwood Ullman, Felix Adler, Charles Lamont, Harry Edwards, James W. Horne, and James Parrott. White brought in his brothers Sam and Jack (who is often credited as "Preston Black") to also write and direct two-reelers for the unit. It was at this time, on August 8, 1934, that Columbia moved it's comedy department from Gower Street to the old, rickety California Studio on Beechwood Drive.
1944 Trade Ad
During the 1930's, some of the comedians hired to head their own series of shorts included Leon Errol, Andy Clyde, The 3 Stooges (Moe Howard, Larry Fine and Curly Howard), Buster Keaton, Harry Langdon, Walter Catlett, El Brendel, The Radio Rogues, Smith and Dale, and Charley Chase, who not only starred in his own series, but also wrote and directed several other comedies being produced on the lot. On average, 25 shorts per year were produced. In 1937, Hugh McCollum, the business manager for the shorts department, was promoted to the position of producer, sharing production duties equally with Jules White. Both White and McCollum ran their own separate units within the department, alternating production chores for each series. This move also gave White more freedom to direct several of the comedies.
The 1940's brought more talent to the unit as veteran comics of stage, screen and radio like Hugh Herbert, Vera Vague, Sterling Holloway and the "team" of Gus Schilling and Richard Lane began headlining their own series. In 1944, Edward Bernds, a sound mixer at Columbia since the shorts department's beginnings, began writing scripts for the shorts, only later to find himself in the director's chair. Bernds is responsible for some of the finest two-reel comedies Columbia made..
In 1946, The 3 Stooges went through a change, bringing in Shemp Howard to replace an ailing Curly. At the time, Shemp (who in real life was brother to both Moe and Curly Howard) was appearing in his own series of shorts for the studio. Harry von Zell, known today for his association with George Burns and Gracie Allen, starred in 8 enjoyable shorts. Veterans Wally Vernon and Eddie Quillan were teamed for a series, as were former boxers Max Baer and "Slapsie" Maxie Rosenbloom. Others who popped up in their own series at Columbia include Billie Burke, Roscoe Karns, Alan Mowbray and former "Our Gang" member Johnny Downs. Even popular burlesque comic Joe DeRita turned up in 4 shorts...long before becoming famous as member of a certain trio that was currently shooting on the same soundstages.
There were also several single entry shorts featuring a variety of performers who passed through the studio gates. Comedians like Franklin Pangborn and Danny Webb (Webb also provided voices for Columbia's theatrical cartoons) only made one short for the studio. Most of these single entries were failed attempts at creating a new series or comedy team. One of the best of these one-shots was the pairing of Tim Ryan and Wally Brown in FRENCH FRIED FROLIC (1949).
Every now and then, there were casting ideas for proposed series that never got off the ground. Jules White had contacted character actor Henry Armetta about starring in a series of comedy shorts, but when the meeting with Armetta proved to be a big mistake (Henry demanded to choose his own co-stars, writers, directors, etc.), Jules nixed the plans. In the mid-1940's, Jules had approached Danny Thomas' manager about hiring Thomas for a series of comedy shorts. Thomas' manager informed Jules that a series of two-reelers was not in Danny's plans, as he was being groomed for "bigger things". Possibly the most intriguing series that never got off the ground would have featured the team of Stan Laurel and Oliver Hardy...that is had the duo been available, as White admitted he would have jumped at the chance to hire them to appear in shorts for the studio.
Supporting players were also very important to the popularity of the films. Jules White knew this and hired some of the best, both veterans and newcomers. Without the talents of those like Vernon Dent, Dudley Dickerson, Dorothy Appleby, Bud Jamison, Ann Doran, Jack Norton, Bess Flowers, Symona Boniface, Duke York, Phil Van Zandt, Kenneth MacDonald, Dick Wessel and fan-favorites Christine McIntyre and Emil Sitka, these films would have lost much of their charm. Other top-notch supporting players include Stanley Blystone, James C. Morton, Esther Howard, Dick Curtis, Jack "Tiny" Lipson, and Harry Semels. Columbia shorts also paved the way for the successful careers of Lucille Ball, Jimmie Dodd, Lloyd Bridges, Yvonne DeCarlo, Noel "Lois Lane" Neill and Walter Brennan.
By the late 1940's, changes were on the way. The cost of producing two-reel short-subjects had skyrocketed and several films became remakes of earlier titles. It was easier (cheaper) to lift footage from an earlier production and shoot new bits or wrap-a-round sequences to match up with the existing footage. Also, the amount of shorts produced had been reduced from 25 per year to 15. To make up the difference, in 1949, the studio began to reissue earlier shorts. These reissues were billed as COMEDY FAVORITES and the first of these was PEST FROM THE WEST, a 1939 Buster Keaton comedy.
The 1940's brought more talent to the unit as veteran comics of stage, screen and radio like Hugh Herbert, Vera Vague, Sterling Holloway and the "team" of Gus Schilling and Richard Lane began headlining their own series. In 1944, Edward Bernds, a sound mixer at Columbia since the shorts department's beginnings, began writing scripts for the shorts, only later to find himself in the director's chair. Bernds is responsible for some of the finest two-reel comedies Columbia made..
In 1946, The 3 Stooges went through a change, bringing in Shemp Howard to replace an ailing Curly. At the time, Shemp (who in real life was brother to both Moe and Curly Howard) was appearing in his own series of shorts for the studio. Harry von Zell, known today for his association with George Burns and Gracie Allen, starred in 8 enjoyable shorts. Veterans Wally Vernon and Eddie Quillan were teamed for a series, as were former boxers Max Baer and "Slapsie" Maxie Rosenbloom. Others who popped up in their own series at Columbia include Billie Burke, Roscoe Karns, Alan Mowbray and former "Our Gang" member Johnny Downs. Even popular burlesque comic Joe DeRita turned up in 4 shorts...long before becoming famous as member of a certain trio that was currently shooting on the same soundstages.
There were also several single entry shorts featuring a variety of performers who passed through the studio gates. Comedians like Franklin Pangborn and Danny Webb (Webb also provided voices for Columbia's theatrical cartoons) only made one short for the studio. Most of these single entries were failed attempts at creating a new series or comedy team. One of the best of these one-shots was the pairing of Tim Ryan and Wally Brown in FRENCH FRIED FROLIC (1949).
Every now and then, there were casting ideas for proposed series that never got off the ground. Jules White had contacted character actor Henry Armetta about starring in a series of comedy shorts, but when the meeting with Armetta proved to be a big mistake (Henry demanded to choose his own co-stars, writers, directors, etc.), Jules nixed the plans. In the mid-1940's, Jules had approached Danny Thomas' manager about hiring Thomas for a series of comedy shorts. Thomas' manager informed Jules that a series of two-reelers was not in Danny's plans, as he was being groomed for "bigger things". Possibly the most intriguing series that never got off the ground would have featured the team of Stan Laurel and Oliver Hardy...that is had the duo been available, as White admitted he would have jumped at the chance to hire them to appear in shorts for the studio.
Supporting players were also very important to the popularity of the films. Jules White knew this and hired some of the best, both veterans and newcomers. Without the talents of those like Vernon Dent, Dudley Dickerson, Dorothy Appleby, Bud Jamison, Ann Doran, Jack Norton, Bess Flowers, Symona Boniface, Duke York, Phil Van Zandt, Kenneth MacDonald, Dick Wessel and fan-favorites Christine McIntyre and Emil Sitka, these films would have lost much of their charm. Other top-notch supporting players include Stanley Blystone, James C. Morton, Esther Howard, Dick Curtis, Jack "Tiny" Lipson, and Harry Semels. Columbia shorts also paved the way for the successful careers of Lucille Ball, Jimmie Dodd, Lloyd Bridges, Yvonne DeCarlo, Noel "Lois Lane" Neill and Walter Brennan.
By the late 1940's, changes were on the way. The cost of producing two-reel short-subjects had skyrocketed and several films became remakes of earlier titles. It was easier (cheaper) to lift footage from an earlier production and shoot new bits or wrap-a-round sequences to match up with the existing footage. Also, the amount of shorts produced had been reduced from 25 per year to 15. To make up the difference, in 1949, the studio began to reissue earlier shorts. These reissues were billed as COMEDY FAVORITES and the first of these was PEST FROM THE WEST, a 1939 Buster Keaton comedy.
The comedies were also offered in the 16mm home movie format. Excel Movie Products released several silent abridged 3 Stooges and Andy Clyde shorts in 50, 100, 150, and 200 ft versions. These home movie versions were marketed for Excel's toy projector sets. Most of these films were given new titles such as HISS AND MAKE UP (featuring footage from Andy Clyde's TWO LOCAL YOKELS) and INFERIOR DECORATORS (which contained footage from The 3 Stooges short A BIRD IN THE HEAD). Official Films was another company licensed to issue prints for non-theatrical use. Many comedies featuring Buster Keaton, Charley Chase, Andy Clyde, and El Brendel, among others, were available through this 16mm rental outlet.
In 1952, Hugh McCollum was fired from his position as producer. With the number of shorts-per-year reduced, Jules White was able to convince the studio that keeping two producers on the payroll was unnecessary. Out of respect for their friend McCollum, both Ed Bernds and writer Elwood Ullman also left the studio, finding a new home at Allied Artists to work on the successful Bowery Boys series. Back at Columbia, Jules White continued to both produce and direct the comedies, with brother Jack re-writing several earlier shorts, while son Harold would serve as editor. In many cases, the amount of stock footage used in these shorts enabled Jules to complete a "new" two-reeler in one day!
In 1955, Moe Howard and Larry Fine would again find themselves in search of a new partner as current "3rd Stooge" Shemp passed away from a heart attack. With 4 shorts to go to finish up their contract, veteran studio player Joe Palma was brought into the group to stand-in for Shemp in scenes that would bridge new material with older stock-footage. Upon completion of the now famous "Fake Shemp" titles, the studio offered up their solution of "3rd Stooge" in Joe Besser, who was at the time appearing in his own series of shorts. In the meantime, Columbia continued to reissue earlier shorts, and went on to release THE COLUMBIA LAFF HOUR, a 1956 feature length compilation of shorts starring Hugh Herbert, Andy Clyde, Vera Vague and The 3 Stooges.
In 1952, Hugh McCollum was fired from his position as producer. With the number of shorts-per-year reduced, Jules White was able to convince the studio that keeping two producers on the payroll was unnecessary. Out of respect for their friend McCollum, both Ed Bernds and writer Elwood Ullman also left the studio, finding a new home at Allied Artists to work on the successful Bowery Boys series. Back at Columbia, Jules White continued to both produce and direct the comedies, with brother Jack re-writing several earlier shorts, while son Harold would serve as editor. In many cases, the amount of stock footage used in these shorts enabled Jules to complete a "new" two-reeler in one day!
In 1955, Moe Howard and Larry Fine would again find themselves in search of a new partner as current "3rd Stooge" Shemp passed away from a heart attack. With 4 shorts to go to finish up their contract, veteran studio player Joe Palma was brought into the group to stand-in for Shemp in scenes that would bridge new material with older stock-footage. Upon completion of the now famous "Fake Shemp" titles, the studio offered up their solution of "3rd Stooge" in Joe Besser, who was at the time appearing in his own series of shorts. In the meantime, Columbia continued to reissue earlier shorts, and went on to release THE COLUMBIA LAFF HOUR, a 1956 feature length compilation of shorts starring Hugh Herbert, Andy Clyde, Vera Vague and The 3 Stooges.
In 1958, Harry Cohn died and Jules White left the studio. The doors of the shorts department had finally closed. The studio's biggest bread-winners and the longest running series in the shorts field, The 3Stooges, were contemplating calling it quits, especially since current "3rd Stooge" Joe Besser had no interest in remaining a member of the group...but that same year, Screen Gems (Columbia Pictures television subsidiary) packaged together 78 3 Stooges comedies for television syndication and history was made. The Stooge comedies became an over-night success. Television stations all over the country were airing the Stooge shorts and Columbia was making a mint.
The overnight success of the Stooge two-reelers prompted the studio to issue the theatrical film THE THREE STOOGES FUN-O-RAMA, which was merely a festival of 3 Stooges shorts featuring Joe Besser as "3rd Stooge". It should be noted that the popularity of these televised Stooge comedies brought the team back into the limelight. Besser was replaced by Joe DeRita (now known as CurlyJoe), and they went on to appear in several feature films and television programs until 1970.
Encouraged by the television success of the Stooges comedies*, Screen Gems put together a package called THE HILARIOUS HUNDRED, which consisted of, despite the package's name, 200 shorts. In the Spring of 1959, many comedies starring Hugh Herbert, Vera Vague, Schilling & Lane, Harry Von Zell, El Brendel and others were made available to the television market. Also included in this package were some of the earlier mentioned Mickey McGuire comedies, as well as MY WIFE'S AN ANGEL, a Ben K. Blake produced musical-comedy starring Allen Jenkins. Columbia's selection of titles in the syndicated television package did not include every title from one particular series. According to Ted Okuda, author of THE COLUMBIA COMEDY SHORTS, many of the Schilling and Lane films were in the package, but evidently not the elusive HOLD THAT MONKEY, their final effort. Mr. Okuda also informed this site that Columbia numbered the films in alphabetical order, as he once owned a 16mm print of the Vera Vague short, YOU DEAR BOY, which was marked on the film leader "Columbia #200". This would be the last film to be included in the 1959 group of syndicated prints.
Some cities ran only a handful of these non-Stooge two-reelers. Often, the comedies were mixed in with BUGS BUNNY and POPEYE cartoons, and one such program was titled NUTS AND BUGS. Boston's WNAC-TV program MAJOR MUDD showcased the shorts along with the more popular Stooge titles. In Detroit, the non-Stooge Columbia's were seen only briefly on programs like CURTAIN TIME and THE JOHNNY GINGER SHOW. Other cities, like Cleveland and Cincinnati, ran every one of the shorts in the package (the Cincinnati version was shown under the blanket titles A MILLION LAUGHS and LAFF HOUSE GANG). Conversely, other cities like Chicago and Rockford, Illinois focused only on the shorts with the most "contemporary" appeal: ie, the Andy Clyde and Buster Keaton shorts (both of these actors were still flourishing and popular in the late 1950s-early 1960s). It has also been brought to this site's attention that during some of the Chicago broadcasts on WGN Channel 9, a few Vera Vague two-reelers were spotted over a period of time.
Whatever the case, the non-Stooge Columbia shorts were never able to build up much of an audience on TV. They did however stay in theatrical circulation until the late 1960's. Buster Keaton's 1940 short PARDON MY BERTH MARKS, for example, was reissued in February 1964. Columbia also continued to reissue the popular 3 Stooges comedies, mainly those with Shemp Howard and Joe Besser, at the traditional eight per year. The Stooge comedies stayed in theatrical release until 1968. During this time, only two Curly shorts were re-released to theaters.
It was during the 1960's that Columbia issued silent and sound home movie prints of select comedies on 8mm. Most of these were edited versions of 3 Stooges subjects, however, a few Buster Keaton and Andy Clyde titles were issued, as was a edited version of Harry Langdon's TO HEIR IS HUMAN. Later, in 1973, Columbia Pictures again released a series of shorts in the Super 8mm format called COMEDY CLASSICS. These were complete, unedited versions of comedies with such stars as Andy Clyde, The 3 Stooges, Harry Langdon, Leon Errol, Roscoe Karns, and Charley Chase. Due to such low sales of the non-Stooge material, Columbia's home movie division would focus only on the comedies of The 3 Stooges for future 8mm releases, as well as the later home video market. Today, on occasion, some of the more obscure non-Stooge titles are dusted off and screened at film festivals, while a few others have made their way recently to DVD (including all but two of the solo Columbia shorts featuring Shemp Howard, Joe Besser and Joe DeRita), but with the exception of the extremely popular comedies of the 3 Stooges, the majority of Columbia's comedy shorts (or, for that matter, short subjects in general) remain inaccessible.
*Just for the record, it should also be mentioned that the popularity of the televised Stooge films also encouraged other distributors to come up with their own syndicated packages. For example, United Artists Television (AAP) sent out a "franchise" show called BIG MAC AND HIS MAGIC TRAIN, which featured several Warner Brothers-Vitaphone comedy shorts of the 1930s. Guild Films came up with BIG RASCALS, a package of RKO shorts featuring Edgar Kennedy, Leon Errol, Clark and McCullough, Gil Lamb and The Newlyweds. Others include MGM-TV's 101 HUNKS OF FUN, a package featuring the Pete Smith shorts, and another distributor put together COMEDY CARNIVAL, made up of the Educational Shorts with Buster Keaton, Harry Langdon, Danny Kaye and others..
Some cities ran only a handful of these non-Stooge two-reelers. Often, the comedies were mixed in with BUGS BUNNY and POPEYE cartoons, and one such program was titled NUTS AND BUGS. Boston's WNAC-TV program MAJOR MUDD showcased the shorts along with the more popular Stooge titles. In Detroit, the non-Stooge Columbia's were seen only briefly on programs like CURTAIN TIME and THE JOHNNY GINGER SHOW. Other cities, like Cleveland and Cincinnati, ran every one of the shorts in the package (the Cincinnati version was shown under the blanket titles A MILLION LAUGHS and LAFF HOUSE GANG). Conversely, other cities like Chicago and Rockford, Illinois focused only on the shorts with the most "contemporary" appeal: ie, the Andy Clyde and Buster Keaton shorts (both of these actors were still flourishing and popular in the late 1950s-early 1960s). It has also been brought to this site's attention that during some of the Chicago broadcasts on WGN Channel 9, a few Vera Vague two-reelers were spotted over a period of time.
Whatever the case, the non-Stooge Columbia shorts were never able to build up much of an audience on TV. They did however stay in theatrical circulation until the late 1960's. Buster Keaton's 1940 short PARDON MY BERTH MARKS, for example, was reissued in February 1964. Columbia also continued to reissue the popular 3 Stooges comedies, mainly those with Shemp Howard and Joe Besser, at the traditional eight per year. The Stooge comedies stayed in theatrical release until 1968. During this time, only two Curly shorts were re-released to theaters.
It was during the 1960's that Columbia issued silent and sound home movie prints of select comedies on 8mm. Most of these were edited versions of 3 Stooges subjects, however, a few Buster Keaton and Andy Clyde titles were issued, as was a edited version of Harry Langdon's TO HEIR IS HUMAN. Later, in 1973, Columbia Pictures again released a series of shorts in the Super 8mm format called COMEDY CLASSICS. These were complete, unedited versions of comedies with such stars as Andy Clyde, The 3 Stooges, Harry Langdon, Leon Errol, Roscoe Karns, and Charley Chase. Due to such low sales of the non-Stooge material, Columbia's home movie division would focus only on the comedies of The 3 Stooges for future 8mm releases, as well as the later home video market. Today, on occasion, some of the more obscure non-Stooge titles are dusted off and screened at film festivals, while a few others have made their way recently to DVD (including all but two of the solo Columbia shorts featuring Shemp Howard, Joe Besser and Joe DeRita), but with the exception of the extremely popular comedies of the 3 Stooges, the majority of Columbia's comedy shorts (or, for that matter, short subjects in general) remain inaccessible.
*Just for the record, it should also be mentioned that the popularity of the televised Stooge films also encouraged other distributors to come up with their own syndicated packages. For example, United Artists Television (AAP) sent out a "franchise" show called BIG MAC AND HIS MAGIC TRAIN, which featured several Warner Brothers-Vitaphone comedy shorts of the 1930s. Guild Films came up with BIG RASCALS, a package of RKO shorts featuring Edgar Kennedy, Leon Errol, Clark and McCullough, Gil Lamb and The Newlyweds. Others include MGM-TV's 101 HUNKS OF FUN, a package featuring the Pete Smith shorts, and another distributor put together COMEDY CARNIVAL, made up of the Educational Shorts with Buster Keaton, Harry Langdon, Danny Kaye and others..
A VERY SPECIAL THANKS TO TED OKUDA, ED WATZ, HAL ERICKSON AND
SCOTT MacGILLIVRAY FOR CONTRIBUTING TO THE ABOVE INFORMATION
QUESTIONS OR COMMENTS? CLICK HERE